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Introduction

Instinctively, globalization is a process motivated by, and ensuing in, increasing cross-border trading of goods, services, currency, individuals, information, and culture (Held et al 1999, p. 16). Sociologist Anthony Giddens (1990, p. 64, 1991, p. 21) recommends to look upon globalization as a decoupling or “distanciation” involving space and time, at the same time as geographer David Harvey (1989) and political scientist James Mittelman (1996) examined that globalization brings about a solidity of space and time, a attenuation of the planet. Sociologist Manuel Castells (1996, p. 92) gives emphasis to the informational features of the global economy when he characterizes it as a financial system with the capability to work as an element in real time on a terrestrial level. In a comparable context, sociologist Gary Gereffi (1994) talks about global commodity chains, whereby production is in line on an international extent. Management academic Stephen Kobrin (1997, pp. 147-148) portrays globalization as determined not by foreign trade and investment but by mounting technological extent and information flows. Political scientist Robert Gilpin (1987, p. 389) characterizes globalization as the ever-increasing interdependence of nations in commerce, investment, and macroeconomic procedures. Sociologist Roland Robertson (1992, p. Cool contends that globalization denotes both to the compression of the globe and the amplification of perception of the planet all together. Similarly sociologist Martin Albrow (1997, p. 8Cool describes globalization as the dissemination of practices, values and technology that have an affect on individual’s existence internationally.” This study intends to look into the ethical consideration of the process of globalization.

Recent Perceptions on Globalization

This part of the study will be presenting the different perceptions of globalization. In this context, with accordance to the academic work done by Petras (1999), the concept of globalization has been utilized in a diverse number of perspectives. Contexts such as the worldwide independence of countries, the development of a global framework, and accrual on a worldwide scale, the international community and a considerable number of other concepts are anchored in the more universal motion that the accrual of capital, trade and investment is not anymore constricted to the nation-state. In its more universal context, globalization signifies the cross-national course of goods, investment and technology. For quite a number of proponents of the globalization concept, these courses, both their range and intensity, have generated a new world order, with its individual institutions and frameworks of authority that have changed the preceding frameworks connected with the nation-state. (Petras, 1999)

Globalization is similarly defined as principally, the progressive incorporation of the national economies of both advanced and developing countries. (O’Neill, 2004) It has been defined in business academies as the generation and distribution of products and services of a standardized kind and quality on a global basis. (Moore, 2001) Similarly, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have taken note that a number of countries perceive globalization as a form of westernization and prefers to shun on the said perception, nonetheless, such withdrawal from globalization are considerably expensive and are considerably detrimental to those in poverty. (Hill, 2000)

With accordance to the work of Moore (2001), recent academic works put forward that globalization as it has been established is a myth. The globalization argument provides them with a couple of alternatives. The accessible alternatives are that choosing their nation or choosing the world. Nevertheless, the said alternatives are not valid anymore considering the fact that it fails to recognize the function and actuality of regions and clusters. Although it is considerably a long way from achieving a singular market for the world, a considerable amount of commercial activity of the big firms transpires in regional blocks. National administrations, trade accords such as the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and cultural diversities segments the globe into the triumvirate of North America, the European Union, and Japan. Merely a number of industries are an international strategy superior. For a considerable number of manufacturing services acquiring a national or regional strategy makes for more sense. (Moore, 2001)

Moore (2001) is adamant that the majority of Multinational enterprises (MNEs) in North America bring in the preponderance of their sales within their home nation or by selling to members of the triumvirate— the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the European Union, or Japan and a diminutive cluster of Asian and Oceania countries. He contended that it is an actual fact that over 85 percent of all vehicles put up for sale in North America are created in North American industrial units; over 90 percent of the automobiles generated in the European Union (EU) are put up for sale in that region; and more than 93 percent of all vehicles recorded in Japan are created within the bounds of their country. In the specialty chemicals area, over 90 percent of all paint is created and utilized regionally by triumvirate-instituted Multinational enterprises (MNEs) and the similar is accurate with other products such as steel, heavy electrical equipment, energy and transportation. He takes account that all these set of actions as all fundamentally local or regional.

Moreover, he noted that another myth regarding globalization is the perception that Multinational enterprises (MNEs) build up one international product for the global market and are then capable, by means of their immense economies of scale, to take over local markets all over the place. The actuality is these Multinationals have to acclimatize their products for the individual national market. He contended that globalization, as a considerable number of individuals have discussed it, does not subsist nor has it ever subsisted, on account of a single global market with free trade and that current period’s actuality of triumvirate-based construction and allocation will continue the actuality long into the future (Moore 2001).

On the other hand, Dalton (1999) articulates a negative inspection of the actual development of globalization in the Information Technology (IT) arena. He took note that globalization is the incorporated markets, universal currencies, and declining trade impediments. Information Technology (IT) supervisors are being demanded on to serve up their companies’ close-minded interests by acquiring beyond geographic impediments - in other words, to consider locally, function globally. Yet the augmented flow of goods and information among regions and nations, and the homogeny of products and measures internationally, have come at several consequences. The effects of the economic problems in quite a number of potions of the globe demonstrate to the interconnected nature of business markets, and the requirement for improved information flow. He sustained that the actual circumstances is something less. While quite a number of commercial organizations utilize electronic supply-chain or value-chain systems to work together with suppliers or customers, the majority constricts those dealings to their own backyards. (Dalton 1999)

Opposing the paradigm of a standardized world future, Hall contends that globalization has its own unexpected requirements, and that the very procedures which characterize worldwide economic and cultural actions bear within themselves their individual pressures and inconsistencies. In such a way that one could to broaden their markets into new fields, multinational companies are discovering that it is progressively essential to become accustomed to the specific demands of local customers, which denotes the adjusting their activities and production lines to go with local cultures in addition to other regional aspects. In satisfying these new demands, the configuration of the multinational corporation is swiftly shifting from a centralized organization with corporate head offices in the North, to an extra bendable amalgamation of diminutive and semi-independent units, better capable to act in response to local circumstances. It may all be merely another stratagem premeditated to masquerade the similar old corporate objectives, nonetheless, as Hall put forward, it just may probably lead to a more varied and volatile international culture than that normally predicted (Arbel, 1994).

Contemporary Globalization

The world was in the process of remarkable change even prior to the dreadfulness of September 11 in 2001. Both democratic systems and the market economy have propagates on an international scale since the decline of communism, and ground-breaking improvements in communication and information technology have assisted in triggering a progressive interdependence involving nations at an unparalleled velocity. Furthermore, the conclusion of the Cold War indicated the dislodgment of ideological stubbornness in favor of an impassioned chase on the direction of economic development and competition for capital and technology. Economic statecraft, in which countries utilize trade, loans, grants and investment to manipulate the activities of other countries, is now becoming more imperative.

The procedure of globalization is frequently acknowledged to be distinguishing of contemporary and modern international developments. Contemporary procedures of globalization have several facades: technological, cultural, religious, economic and political. Among these said facades, none of which are considered good or bad. All of which should be acknowledged as vague, with probability for both good and evil, nevertheless in the existing stage of globalization it is imperative to specify the diverse facades of globalizations and empathize with a probability to track down the good. Globalization signifies a couple of separate set of circumstances. Initially, it denotes that political, economic and social actions are developing into a global scope. Secondly, it denotes that there has been an augmentation of degrees of communication and interconnectedness involving the states and societies. (Held, 1991) Among these relationships are those instigated by the progressive materialization of an international economy, the development of international connections which creates contemporary types of collective decision-making, the improvement of intergovernmental and pseudo-supranational institutions. (Giddens, 1990) The effects of globalization are contentious and not automatically positive. Extreme issues rise regarding the accountability of such varied global organization and agencies like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which opposes the very concept of an autonomous state.

On the other hand, the term “globalization” similarly considered as elusive and multifaceted by other academics. Even though globalization is an actual and remarkable strengthening of current international models, it is not necessary to embrace its existing direction as unavoidable. Cynics of contemporary international developments demands for the improvement of popular accountability on the side of national and global institutions, for more command of the general public over these institutions, for a proper internationalism, and for fair choices to the criminal actions of international financial institutions (Crossette, 2000; Frank, 2000:16, 19; Hutton and Giddens, 2000; Lemisch, 2000: 10). If at all possible, outside demands on international financial institutions such as the World Bank will show the way to substantial internal modifications, or to the failure and downfall of such institutions. (McCorquodale and Fairbrother, 1999)

Debates on Globalization

Globalization is unmistakably all over the place. Kim and Weaver (2003) took note that globalization has taken over our consciousness in a number of forms. Essentially, it is an all-encompassing term for the emergence of an international community in which economic, political, environmental, and cultural events in one portion of the world promptly come to have meaning for individuals in other parts of the globe. It is similarly taken into consideration as the accomplishment of capitalism (Teeple, 2000). Globalization portrays the change of the foremost setting of capital accumulation from the national to the global level (Teeple, 2000). In globalization, individuals around the world are more associated to each other than ever before. Data and finances flow more speedily than ever. Worldwide communication is considered ordinary (Porter, 2004). Nevertheless, this observable fact has both constructive and destructive consequences. Incorporated in the destructive aspects are the speedy increase of illnesses, prohibited drugs, crime, terror campaigns, and unrestrained migration. Among globalization’s advantages are a distribution of essential knowledge, technology, investments, and resources.

To those who have faith and accept the rationale of globalization, the observable fact has accomplished a number of important contributions in shifting the situation of the world. Majority of experts possess the same opinion that it has developed communication, transportation, and information technologies internationally. As in the humanizing examination, the disparaging understanding considers globalization as showing the way to convergence, even though foreseeing the destructive rather than advantageous end results (Guillen, 2001). With the exception of the above-mentioned advantages, it has similarly tendered benefits in trade. In proportion to the work of Taylor (2002), periods of intensifying international trade have commonly been times of financial development. Furthermore, Taylor (2002) claimed that quite a number of the advantages of globalization are not from the products that are freighted but from other means in which trade outlines the economic situation. Moreover, trade frequently carries with it an affluence of skills and institutions such as technology, training, administration, accounting, external supervision of businesses, and even disclosure to knowledge in such fields as bank regulation, antitrust procedures, and environmental fortification.

Specific organizations have been labeled as the major shapers of globalization. These organizations include the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization. The World Bank’s principal duty is to assist developing nations to grow in a more competitive rate. The IMF provides loans so that nations can preserve the value of their money and reimburse foreign liabilities while the WTO assists in the attenuation of the impediments in trade and trading contracts. Nonetheless, notwithstanding the demanding functions that these organizations carry out, two among them have encountered serious criticisms. The IMF has been disapproved of subjugating developing nations further, more willingly than assisting them. Exploiting of the enormous indebtedness of these nations, the IMF has called for all-embracing economic restructurings on the direction of drastic liberalization or free-market systems (Bullard et al., 1998; Madrick, 1998). Alternatively, it is admonished that wealthy nations have the furthermost bargaining authority in the WTO at the expense of those nations in poverty.

Consistent with Guillen (2001), there are five important arguments in globalization. On the subject the first important argument, countless policymakers, publicists, and academics acquire it in a patently obvious comportment that globalization is in actual fact transpiring devoid of backing their assertions with information (Ohmae 1990, Naisbitt & Aburdene 1990). Quite the opposite, Hirst and Thompson (1996) contended that globalization is not unparalleled in global history and foreign investment and trade are concerted in the supposed triumvirate – Western Europe, North America, and Japan. In total, they contend that the economy is developing into a more international scale but not more global.

In the second arguable concern, Meyer and Hannah (1979) contended that nation-states are perceived as portraying convergent structural resemblance, even though there is a decoupling in the midst of objectives and configuration, purpose and consequences. As a counteraction to this, quite a few contended adjacent to globalization tendering convergence. Giddens (1991) stated that globalization has to be acknowledged as a dialectical occurrence, in which procedures at one extremity of a distanced relationship frequently fabricates deviating or even opposing incidences at another (Giddens, 2000; Held et al, 1999). In addition, Guillen (2001) took note that it is possible that the most contentious feature of the convergence argument has to do with the consequence of globalization on discrimination across and within nations. With empirical support, it can be stated that the improvement degrees across nations seems not to be congregating in consequence of globalization (Guillen, 2001).

The third important argument, alternatively, takes into consideration whether the progression of globalization has outgrown the ascendancy arrangements of the international structure of nations and destabilized the power of the nation-state. Vernon’s (1971) contend that the extension of multinational corporations generates disparaging political apprehensions, and Kennedy (1993) similarly stated that national governments are being defeated in terms of control, and that globalization wears away the arrangement of labor and developing countries, and debases the environment are among the foremost argument the this issue. On other perspectives, Pierson (1994) contends that the welfare state has deteriorated not so much on account of globalization but for the reason of such circumlocutory activities of conservative governments as lessening in the revenue base of the nation and showing of aggression on the power of interest groups, particularly labor. Both arguments have a variety of encouragement from diverse social scientists.

The fourth important argument in globalization has to do with whether it is simply a continuance of the development toward modernity or the commencement of a new period (Guillen, 1999). At this point, Giddens (1991) disputed that modernity is intrinsically globalizing, and that globalization makes the methods of association concerning diverse social circumstances or regions turn out to be networked across the earth’s surface all together. On the other side of the discussion, Albrow (1997) contends that globalization is a conversion, not a conclusion, and the changeover to a new period more willingly than the highest point of the previous.

The fifth and final argument, conversely, circles around in the context that globalization has to do with the ascent of a global culture. In this context, it has been disputed that globalization encourages culture determined by signs, descriptions, and the aesthetic of the standard of living and the sense of self (McLuhan, 1964; Levitt, 1983; and Sklair, 1991). Quite the opposite, it has been contended that customer differentiation should not be mistaken for isolation and that people and groups intends to take possession of the international into their own practices of the contemporary, and that utilization of the mass media internationally aggravates struggle, sarcasm, selectivity, and, on the whole, organization. (Zelizer, 1999; Apparudai, 1996)

Conclusion

Cultural relativism is a member of the communitarian custom, which states that there are features of community and human harmony for which justice is not precursor. In this context, implementing the conventions of justice to cultural customs may possibly bring about a moral decline more willingly than an enhancement – in the same way that a family that starts to converse in the language of entitlements rather than love may perhaps be perceived to be carrying out less well. If cultural relativism is accurate, and communities can manipulate what is correct and erroneous, then the cultural relativist have got to perceive incursions on native ways of life and the wearing away of such culture as a ominous object. As McDonald’s are in motion into the avenues of Prague, for instance, the cultural relativist may perhaps perceive this as a hazard if it reduces features of Czech culture. Critics from this perception emphasize that demolition of old ways is the usual passenger of progress on the whole. Culture is by no means permanent, so when it transforms, it does not equate of transformation as becoming better or worse. The thought that overall the tendency is that individuals live better and more inclusive existence with more resources is recognized as creative destruction. Third World and indigenous arts have flourished on the jagged playing field of today’s international economy.

On this examination, transformation in culture and community need not be perceived as a catastrophe. The cultural relativist nonetheless may perhaps hypothesize that where a number of the most solid characteristics of smaller economies cannot refuse to accept being transplanted, an imperative characteristic of the moral understanding of societies has been permanently altered. The arguments over ethics and morality in the worldwide background are overwhelmed by difficulties of what is the topic of the discussion and what affects globalization has on the characteristics of societies in a global structure.

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Real interest

The real interest rate is the nominal interest rate minus the rate of inflation, and thus is the interest rate adjusted for inflation. Real Interest Rate is the amount by which the nominal interest rate is higher than the inflation rate. The real rate of interest is approximated by taking the nominal interest rate and subtracting inflation. The real interest rate is the growth rate of purchasing power derived from an investment. There is a preference for “real” applications for savings such as consumption or real investment. Real interest rate compensates for delayed consumption or giving up real investment opportunities. The higher the desire for consumption or real investment opportunities the higher the real rate of interest.

The real rate of interest is determined by the demand and supply for savings at a given point in time. The real rate is the price needed to delay consumption of funds demanded for real investment. Upward shifts to the right (increases) in demand for desired real investment cause the real rate of interest to increase. If the supply of desired savings shifts upward (increases) to the right, the real rate of interest declines. The concept of real rate of interest is a most important theoretical construct in monetary policy. Monetary authorities use it as an instrumental measure to target the mandated or desired inflation rate. (Brahmananda, 2001)

Nominal interest

Nominal interest is the rate of interest specified in loan contracts, without adjustment for inflation. The annual return form lending money expressed as a percentage, without having taken account of the rate of inflation. Nominal means “in name only”, this is sometimes called the quoted rate. (McCracken, 2004) Normal Interest Rate is the stated rate of interest applied to certain investment process.

Nominal Rate of Interest only has an impact on firms’ investment decisions if they are accompanied by a change in the real interest rate. Research findings said that, empirical investigations of the relationship between investment and demand uncertainty seldom use appropriate empirical proxies that are close to the concept of demand uncertainty for which the theory is developed. Results show that demand uncertainty reduces both planned investment and realized investment (1991) for imperfectly competitive firms. There was no evidence of an effect of price uncertainty on investment, which is consistent with the assumption of price setting firms. Outcome show that demand uncertainty reduces the level of investment plans, and do so by a non-negligible amount. Butzen et al (2003), Guiso and Parigi (1999) and Patillo (1998) also report a negative effect of demand uncertainty on firms’ investment.

Finally, such results suggest that, on average, firms adjust their investment plans very little, although revisions may be substantial for some firms and years. Firms do not modify their investment decisions due to the fact that part of the uncertainty had disappeared between the time the investment was planned and the time investment is realized. This contrasts with the effect of uncertainty on the timing of investment, as stressed by the real-option theory. However, firms may revise their investment plans according to new information on their fundamentals. In particular firms may adjust their investment plans when observing sales growth, but they do so only slightly.

In summary, results indicate that the level of uncertainty affects investment plans, but that plans are not revised as a result of a change in uncertainty. This suggests that a reduction in the level of uncertainty would indeed enhance investment, but will do so with a lagged effect, since uncertainty affects investment plans but not revisions of current investment.

References:

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Butzen, P., C. Fuss and Ph. Vermeulen (2003), ” The impact of uncertainty on investment plans”, in Butzen, P. and C. Fuss (eds.), Firms’ Investment and Finance Decisions: Theory and Empirical Methodology, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, August 2003.

Executive Summary

Pfizer is among the largest companies in the world and among the leaders in the pharmaceutical industry. From April 2002 until March 2003, the company was able to rank first in total sales generation. Specifically, the company was able to acquire billions of US dollars, which in turn led to significant market share and company growth. In addition, Pfizer was able to out rank its major competitors such as Merck and Co., John & Johnson and GlaxoSmithKline. Reports have noted that the success of the company was mainly attributed to its effective marketing efforts, which in fact, have been considered as one of the best in the business industry. In addition, the safety records of Pfizer is also one of the best; thus, acquiring investors and establishing trust was easy for the company.

Aside from human health, Pfizer is also manufacturing products under its animal health product line. One of the market segments of the company are the large cow-calf business owners. Using the herd-size market segmentation approach, Pfizer primarily caters to large business owners and operators. While this market segmentation has been effective for the company, other approaches could possibly maximize the product distribution of the company. Thus, in this business analysis paper, the herd-size market segmentation approach will be described and analyzed. Furthermore, based on previous learning and business inputs, other viable market segmentation approaches that Pfizer may apply will also be identified.

Pfizer’s Animal Health Segment

Like its pharmaceutical product line, Pfizer’s Animal Health segment is recognized as one of the world’s largest. The company discovers, creates and sells products on animal health that will prevent and treat livestock and companion animal diseases. Based on reports and statistical records, the Animal Health segment of Pfizer was able to obtain increased revenues by twenty-two percent, adding two billion US dollars. This success has been attributed to the company’s inline product brands like Draxxin and Excede, a medication for treating cattle and swine respiratory diseases. Clavamox, Revolution and Rimadyl are all medications for companion animals that have contributed greatly to Pfizer’s animal health segment. These product segments were able to contribute a significant 3.7 percent to its total revenue in 2004, 3.6 percent in 2003 and 3.5 percent in 2002. From these records, it is clear that Pfizer is able to acquire consistent growth in its animal health products. Pfizer Animal Health segment markets a number of products, including anti-inflammatories, parasiticides, antibiotics, vaccines and other related products. Among these products, medication for animal parasites constitutes the largest market, particularly for companion animals as this product line is primarily composed of medicines for parasites like worms and fleas. The brand Revolution is the largest selling parasiticide of the company for companion animals. Rimadyl on the other hand is a medication used as a pain and inflammation reliever for dogs with osteoarthritis, or those who have undergone soft tissue orthopedic operation. This product may also be used as a medication for animal arthritis, and come in tablets, capsules and injectable forms. Another popular product is Clavamox which is used as a skin antibiotic and soft tissue infections for both dogs and cats. Vaccines for livestock animals are also produced by Pfizer. One of which is RespiSureOne that is for pneumonia prevention among swine. Cattle vaccine is also manufactured by Pfizer and comes by the brand name Bovi-Shield Gold, and used to prevent respiratory and reproductive disorders. Dectomax is also distributed among cow-cattle operators for controlling and removing both internal and external parasites in beef cattle. Respiratory and other internal infection among cattle and swine may also be treated through an antibiotic called Naxcel/Excenel RTU. From this wide array of product lines, it becomes clear that high market coverage is among the many factors that contributed to Pfizer’s success. On the products manufactured for cows and cattle, Pfizer used a market segmentation strategy known as the herd-size market segmentation approach. The efficacy of using this segmentation approach will be analyzed based on the details provided by the case study.

The Herd-Size Market Segmentation Approach

Segmentation analysis is actually based on the theoretical belief that every consumer has different attitudes, perceptions and purchasing behaviors. However, these differences are not wholly idiosyncratic. Hence, consumers with similar needs and preferences must be grouped together apart from other groups with other preferences. This further stresses the importance of market segmentation to business. Market segmentation refers to the practice of dividing the total market into several groups, where the preferences of each consumer on products, services and distribution methods are all taken into account. This strategy appears to be an effective tool primarily in addressing mature markets. This is mainly because markets of this type are typically huge in size and highly diversified. According to Michman (1991), market segmentation pertains to marketing efforts provided to a group of potential buyers based on various characteristics. These characteristics may include demographic, geographic, lifestyle and behavioral data. Hence, market segments are typically based on age, income, occupation, gender and behavioral aspects. Through market segmentation, the company is able to include efficiency and specialization into its marketing operations. By designing certain marketing programs, companies can align their products with the specific needs of their market segments, resulting to better marketing results (Moschis, 1994). Pfizer Animal Health also makes use of the market segmentation strategy. This approach is being utilized by the company in their animal health products for cows and cattle. Pfizer Animal Health has segmented its market based on herd-size. With this market segmentation approach, the company focuses its attention on business owners and producers with a herd size of more than five hundred heads of cattle. Pfizer has used this approach to concentrate its marketing efforts. The segment is actually made up of 2.8% of all animal in the market.

In market segmentation, the nature of the market is not the only significant factor. Size is particularly important for an effective market segmentation strategy. In actuality, business operators of cows and cattle typically own a herd size with less than a hundred cattle head. Considering this fact, it seems impractical to just concentrate its marketing efforts to a small market population. The creation, distribution and advertising of a product can be labor-extensive and can demand a lot from the company resources. Thus, the company has to identify a huge market segment that can help reimburse all support given to the product. It is then not advisable to concentrate all marketing efforts to a market segment with a small percentage size. Concentrating to other segments that are larger in population may help Pfizer increase its revenue.

The herd-size market segmentation approach applied by the company provides minimal attention to traditionalists which make up 19.8% of all animals in the market. Moreover, this segmentation approach totally ignores the hobbyists which comprise 77 percent of all animals within the market. From this case, the basis of the company for concentrating on the smallest market segment is difficult to determine. Normally, market segmentation is based on the size of the market, including the consumers’ needs and preferences. Though small operators may not be have the highest ability or potential to support the product distributed by Pfizer Animal Health, this segment by far outnumbers the market segment based on her size.

Perhaps, the intention of the company to ensure the continuous support of their product is one of the reasons why Pfizer preferred to concentrate their marketing efforts on large operators. Aside from the fact that these owners have a huge herd that will need the product, these businesses are highly stabilized, with enough resources to support mass product orders. Small operators are not only less stable, but some of them are not growing cows and cattle for business. Thus, demand for the product may be less. Rather than including smaller operators as a market segment, Pfizer preferred to concentrate on the segment that will provide guaranteed support for the company.

While this approach may be practical, other segments that are also in need of the products made by the company may be overlooked. Hence, consumer groups that could have contributed to the company may not be given due attention. For this reason, extensive research and consumer study must be conducted. Other possible market segments must be identified by Pfizer. Changes should also be done to conventional market segmentation approaches.

The preferences, needs and tastes of consumers tend to change over time. Hence, identifying a new market, or a market niche, is essential (Sloman and Sutcliffe, 2001). Aside from developing a new product for this new market, Pfizer may also apply newer approaches that will include the new market segment, particularly the small business operators including the traditionalists and hobbyists. Research perhaps may be the most valuable tool that the company can use to gather significant data for these new market segmentation approaches

Other Market Segmentation Approaches

Selecting a single method to create a market segment is not possible. This is because a number of variables on segmentation would have to be evaluated alone and in combination to other variables. In order to create an effective market segmentation approach, a step by step process must be conducted. This process include the identification of the market segmentation bases, the development of market segment profiles, the identification of the segment size and profitability, selection of target markets, product positioning for every target market and the development of an appropriate marketing mix to reach every target market.

In order to enhance the current market segmentation applied by Pfizer, the process described above should be performed. In addition, below are some of the approaches that can be applied by the company:

• Behavioristic Segmentation

In this approach, consumers are segmented into groups based on their attitudes, uses, knowledge or responses to a certain product. In this segmentation approach, the focus is on buying situations, which tend to vary depending on circumstances and buyers’ time. With behavioristic segmentation, Pfizer may be able to identify other market segments that respond positively to its animal health product. Current trends suggest that customer preferences tend to change rapidly, and that most businesses are becoming more and more customer-oriented. Hence, applying the behavioristic segmentation approach is very much applicable to this industrial change. In implementing this approach, Pfizer may conduct a consumer study focusing on their product and brand preferences as well as current needs. Buying trends may also be included in this market segmentation approach. Rather than focusing on herd-size alone, Pfizer need to be more focused on the needs of the customers found in other market segments.

• Usage Segmentation

Usage segmentation is aptly named as this approach focuses on how market segments use a particular product. When a company makes use of this segmentation approach, a new and distinct product is usually developed. In addition to product development, special prices, promotional activities and distribution methods are established. In most instances, these special activities are beneficial as they enable the establishment of customer loyalty. In utilizing the usage segmentation for identifying market segments, companies and marketers are able to target various segments even when the customers are the same. The case of Pfizer may be used as an example for this tendency. For instance, a market segment may be price sensitive in one situation, such as purchasing cattle/cow vaccine for everyday use, and price insensitive to other situations, like purchasing vaccines in times when epidemics and pests are likely. Hence, inexpensive vaccines may be offered to consumer for everyday use and more expensive vaccines for other cases and emergencies.

• Psychographic Segmentation

This approach is primarily composed of motivation, lifestyle and personality variables. A single psychographic variable may be used on it own in identifying a market segment, or it may be combined with other psychographic variables. Consumer personalities like compulsiveness, aggressiveness, introversion and extroversion are some examples which can be used to divide a market. Motive on the other hand, is the drive that provides the consumers with the direction to move towards goal achievement. While it is hard to accurately measure the extent of a motive, marketers have used this segmentation approach to markets. Among the most common motives that may affect the types of products purchased and where these products are purchased. Lifestyle is also part of this segmentation approach. Lifestyle and market segmentation are considered to be related concepts and are potent tools for maximizing profitability and satisfying consumer preferences. When lifestyles are analyzed, opinions, interests and activities of the consumers are usually considered. Thus, activities like work, hobbies and leisure, or opinions such as on social, political and educational issues are take n into account in this segmentation approach. This approach can help Pfizer identify which of the consumers are considered hobbyists or traditionalists.

Implementation

Based on the descriptions made for the possible segmentation approaches that Pfizer can apply, it is imperative that the company conduct the said procedures in market segmentation. In addition, the company should conduct a demographic research focusing on the location of the consumers. This is to help the company identify which states have a higher population of small cow/cattle operators which need much attention. A consumer study should also be conducted by the company so as to help its marketers decide which of the many possible approaches should be applied. In terms of marketing strategy, a development of a marketing mix should be useful in the implementation of the selected market segmentation approach. Thus, the 4 Ps (product, price, place and promotion) should be identified to help market the animal health products.

Conclusion

Pfizer Animal health has focused its marketing efforts on herd-size market segmentation approach. While this approach is practical as the company can concentrate on large cow/cattle business owners, other market segments, particularly the small operators, are not given much attention. As product development and distribution can be demanding in terms of labor and other resources, gaining support from a more diversified market segment is then essential. Hence, applying other market segmentation approaches by Pfizer may be helpful in improving its sales and business status.

At present, businesses are becoming more and more customer-oriented. Thus, most marketing efforts are focused more on what the customer needs and prefers. Pfizer can then apply the suggested market segmentation approaches in response to changing customer trends. In general, Pfizer’s market segmentation based on herd-size may be improved further by applying other appropriate strategies. Most importantly, Pfizer should focus itself more on generating customer satisfaction and loyalty rather than on profit generation assurance alone.

References

Michman, R. (1991). Lifestyle Market Segmentation. New York: Praeger Publishers.

Moschis, G. (1994). Marketing Strategies for the Mature Market. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Sloman, J. and Sutcliffe, M. (2001). Economics for Business. Harlow, England: Financial Time Prentice Hall.

Introduction

Medical practices have significantly evolved over time. With the rise of technology and more advanced techniques, new methods of treating diseases and maintaining good health have been introduced. In order to develop these new methods, certain important elements had been utilized. In particular, inorganic compounds of various elements have been useful for medical purposes since the ancient times. In fact, some of these compounds had been used by ancestors to create alternative medications.

Inorganic chemistry is the main study that deals with all elements and compounds with the exception of carbon. The element carbon and its compounds on the other hand are under the study of organic chemistry. Within the field of inorganic chemistry, the characteristics of inorganic substances, including the nonliving matters and minerals found within the surface of the earth, are investigated (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2004). Now that medicine had gone through numerous advancements, inorganic compounds are also being studied for their medical uses. Hence, in this discussion, various inorganic compounds that have been recognized as beneficial and useful in the medical field, will be identified and described.

Mercury

Inorganic mercury perhaps is one of the most common compounds related to medical use. The element mercury exists naturally in the environment in three major forms. These include the metallic, inorganic and organic mercury. As the focus of this discussion is on inorganic elements and compounds, inorganic mercury will be highlighted. This compound is actually formed when the element is combined with oxygen, sulfur and chlorine. This form of mercury compound is also commonly called as mercury salts. This compound typically comes in the form of crystals or white powders. However, cinnabar or mercuric sulfide is also an inorganic form of mercury that is different from others as it is color red and changes to black when exposed to light (About, 2005). A number of inorganic mercury compounds had been used for medical purposes. For instance, this has been used as fungicides. Produced mainly by bacteria and fungi, methylmercury had been used as protection from fungal infections. However, when the adverse effects of using methylmercury and ethylmercury compounds had been confirmed, the use of these compounds as fungicides was banned. From then on until 1991, phenylmercuric compounds were used for this purpose. Nonetheless, this compound was also banned as an antifungal agent as it was discovered that vapors are released from this compound, which is also harmful to human health (About, 2005). Mercuric iodide and ammoniated mercuric chloride are some examples of inorganic mercury salts that have been used for creams and soaps to lighten the skin. Inorganic mercury had been useful these products due to its cation’s ability to block the melanin pigment production in the skin. Disinfectant agent or topical antiseptic is also one of the many medicinal products that use inorganic mercury, specifically mercuric chloride. During the early times, mercurous oxide is also used for producing teething powders, worming medications as well as laxatives (About, 2005). According to Davis and associates (1974), while inorganic mercurials have been used for laxatives, most industrialized nations have decided to abandon its use due to its known toxicity. Moreover, more effective and safer alternatives had been introduced. Antibacterial medicines also include inorganic mercury. This form of mercury is used for these medications primarily because of its preservative action for certain medications and over the counter drugs. Examples of these medical products are thimerosal, phenylmercuric nitrate and mercurochrome that has about 2% of mercury (About, 2005).

Other inorganic mercuric compounds such as mercurous acetate, mercuric chloride, mercuric iodide, mercuric oxide have been used for creating bactericidal, diuretic, antiseptic, cathartic and fungicidal purposes in various regions like North America, Europe and Australia. Nevertheless, the use of inorganic compounds of mercury had been put to a stop due to the increased reports on its toxicity (Kang-Yum & Oransky, 1992; Dyall-Smith & Scurry, 1990). In 1997, researchers Al-Saleh and Al-Doush had conducted a study by examining thirty-eight different lightening creams for the skin and concluded that 45% of these products have levels of mercury which are beyond the allowed levels set by the US Food and Drug Administration at 1 mg/kg. In fact, two of the analyzed products have concentrations of mercury that is more than 900 mg/kg.

In a less scientific field, a few sources had documented the use of inorganic mercury for ethic practices, religious beliefs, magical and herbal remedies. In Chinese, Hispanic and Indian culture, mercury is one of the common elements used for medicinal purposes, herbal preparations and other religious remedies (Kew et al, 1993). In one study, focused was given on the analysis of twelve types of herbal ball preparations that are commercially produced and used for traditional Chinese medicine. Results showed that about 7.8 up to 621.3 milligrams of mercury were found for every herbal ball. As the minimum recommended dosage for an adult is two balls daily, intake levels of up to 1.2 grams of mercury may be an everyday dosage (Espinoza et al, 1996).

In some religions, elemental mercury has been used for different practices and rituals. These religions include Voodoo, Santeria, Espiritismo and Palo Mayombe. Though not every believer of these religions use mercury, the exposure to the element can occur as it is used for folk, religious or ritual practices. This form of element, typically sold as azogue, is highly accessible to stores in North America called botanicas. These stores are usually found in communities of Haitian and Hispanic communities. The azogue is usually sold in glass containers or capsules. There are several ways on how this medicine is used. However, considering the known harmful effects of mercury, exposure to this element during ritual practices may put resident to health risks.

In addition to medical purposes, inorganic mercury has also been useful for therapeutic purposes. Different mercury salts for example, are used for cutaneous application that is used for treating an infected impetigo or eczema. Calomel is also used for curing syphilis, whereas ammoniated mercury or mercuric oxide is used for treating psoriasis. Moreover, these compounds are also used for ointments.

According to Mahaffey (1999), the health care and the hospital industry are among the largest users of the element mercury. This is then followed by the medical waste incinerators. While mercury and its inorganic form had been used for pharmaceutical uses, mercury has been useful for important medical apparatuses including thermometers, blood pressure monitors, laboratory chemical, esophageal dilators and feeding tubes.

Copper

Copper is yet another element whose inorganic complexes have been used for medical reasons. Copper tryptophanate and copper aspirintae for example, are two inorganic complexes of copper that have been useful for increasing the healing rate of wounds and ulcers. Compared to other treating agents, copper complexes have the ability to heal gastric ulcers five days earlier. In addition, while NSAIDs or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like enefenamic acid and ibuprofen have the effect of suppressing wound healing, copper complexes enable normal wound healing while retaining anti-inflammatory activity. Among other organs in the body, the human brain contains the most amount of copper. This then implies the significant role of the element in the normal functioning of the brain. Reports had shown this significant role as humans and animals deprived of copper in the diet suffer incidences of seizures. Eventually, it was discovered that the anti-convulsant effect of drugs is not attributable to its organic compounds but on its reaction causing the formation of copper complexes. Moreover, it was also found out that anti-epileptic medications and their copper complexes are far less toxic and more effective than other drugs. A number of preparations using inorganic copper were found to be efficient in curing various ailments such as tubercular infections, impetigo, anemias, lupus, syphilis, scorphulosis, chronic adenitis, eczema, facial neuralgia and chorea. In the ancient times, inorganic compounds of copper have also been recognized for their anti-fungal and anti-bacterial activity.

Arsenic

Though arsenic has been known as a toxic element, various literature had shown its medical significance. For instance during the early part of the twentieth century, arsenious acid, an inorganic solution of arsenious trioxide, was injected into a mice sample that was infected with parasitic protozoans, specifically trypanosomiasis. Both the protozoa and the mice sample were killed as the compound was injected. However, it had been noted that the mice had died cured of the disease, implying the potential of arsenic compounds for chemotherapy (Albert, 1968). Rosenthal (2000) has stated that in spite of arsenic’s poisonous nature, the crude preparation of the element has been part of the Chinese practitioners’ traditional remedy. Later, this preparation has been purified and developed by the Harbin Medical University, which later has been useful in treating acute promyeloctic leukemia (APL). In 1997, this product has been manufactured under the name Trisenox with arsenic trioxide as its main component. This drug was granted an FDA approval in September 2001 (Cohen et al., 2001).

Conclusion

The use and significance of inorganic compounds had been invaluable to the medical field. With these compounds, drugs and apparatuses have been available for human benefit. Mercury for instance has been useful for treating various illnesses as well as a major component of some medical instruments. Copper on the other hand has been beneficial in treating ulcers, cancers and nervous disorders. Though known to be poisonous, early and current medical sources had identified inorganic arsenic compounds to be useful for medical purposes as well. While some inorganic drugs had been known to be toxic and harmful to health, the ability to develop alternatives has been promoted and enhanced. Hence, the role of inorganic compounds such as mercury, copper and arsenic in the health industry will in no doubt be developed in the years to come.

References

“Inorganic Chemistry”. (2004). The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th Edition. New York: Columbia University Press.

About (2005). What is Mercury? Available at: allergies.about.com

Albert, A. (1968). Selective Toxicity. 4th ed. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Cohen, M. H. et al. (2001). Drug Approval Summaries: Arsenic Trioxide, Tamoxifen Citrate, Anastrazole, Paclitaxel, Bexarotene. Oncologist, 6(1), 4–11.

Davis, L. E. et al. (1974). Central nervous intoxication from mercurous chloride laxatives-quantitative, histochemical and ultrastructure studies. Arch. Neurol. 30, 428-431.

Dresher, W. (2000, June). Copper Applications in Health & Environment. Innovations. Available at: http://www.copper.org

Dyall-Smith, DJ. and Scurry, J. P. (1990). Mercury pigmentation and high mercury levels from the use of a cosmetic cream. Med J Aust, 153(7), 409-410.

Espinoza, E. O., et al. (1995). Arsenic and mercury in traditional Chinese herbal balls. The New England Journal of Medicine, 333(12), 803-04.

Kang-Yum E and Oransky SH. 1992 Chinese Patent Medicine As a Potential Source of Poisoning. Vet Hum Toxicol, 34(3), 235-238.

Kew, J., et al. (1993). Arsenic and mercury intoxication due to Indian ethnic remedies. Br Med J, 306, 506-507.

Mahaffey, K. (1999). Methylmercury: A new look at the risks. Public Health Reports, 114(5), 396.

Rosenthal, E. (2000, May 6). Chairman Mao’s Cure for Cancer. The New York Times Magazine, 70–73.

Upon the utterance of the term technology, the first things that it implicates are computers and the vast array of products and services associated with them. Technology is best understood, not as a particular type of product or service, but rather as the full range of knowledge and means by which scientific knowledge is transformed into a usable commodity or service. The word technology from the Greek technologia, meaning systematic treatment of an art properly refers to know-how, as opposed to hardware.

Technology could be sub-divided into high technology, low technology, and new technology. Perhaps the most influential in culture today is the use of new technology. The application of the new technology that is most relevant to trade policy is electronic commerce. For consumers of goods, the Internet permits transactions analogous to catalog and telephone orders, multiplied many times over. Through the Internet, there will always be a chance to take a glimpse at every culture. Without moving or getting up from your seat, you easily have access to the world, with the Internet posing as a window to other cultures. The television is also undeniably helpful in the promotion of culture. Television shows, whether reality or documentary, shows the culture of different races. Humans clearly have easier ways of promoting culture through technology.

Technology has a wider meaning to include the creation and control of the whole human-built world. Many countries have bristled at what they view as cultural hegemony on the part of a few economic powers, even as their citizens latch on to the latest trends from abroad. Information technology has already shown a similar capability to spread culture and language.

Nanotechnology is the projected ability to make things from the bottom up, using techniques and tools that are being developed today to place every atom and molecule in a desired place. If this form of molecular engineering is achieved, which seems probable, it will result in a manufacturing revolution. It also has serious economic, social, environmental, and military implications.

When Eric Drexler popularized the word ‘nanotechnology’ in the 1980’s, he was talking about building machines on the scale of molecules, a few nanometers wide motors, robot arms, and even whole computers, far smaller than a cell. Drexler spent the next ten years describing and analyzing these incredible devices, and responding to accusations of science fiction. Meanwhile, mundane technology was developing the ability to build simple structures on a molecular scale. As nanotechnology became an accepted concept, the meaning of the word shifted to encompass the simpler kinds of nanometer scale technology. The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative was created to fund this kind of nanotech, their definition includes anything smaller than 100 nanometers with novel properties.

Nanotechnology is often referred to as a general purpose technology. That’s because in its mature form it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all areas of society. It offers better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter products for the home, for communications, for medicine, for transportation, for agriculture, and for industry in general.

What are the implications of nanotechnology for healthcare?

It is likely that nanotechnology will have a significant impact on the health sector before 2020. However, following 2020 it is likely (if nanotechnology meets the current expectations of facilitating molecular manipulation) that nanotechnologies will continue the path forged by information technology and biotechnology advances whilst providing new niche applications. These are likely to be high cost in the short medium term but lead to significant improvements in the resource efficiency of healthcare output. For example, the use of remote nano sensors to monitor the efficient use of heart applications and compact ultra sensitive chemical and biological sensors for food supply protection, (If one assumes that these developments will stem from the pharmaceuticals industry sub-sector of the chemicals industry) then one can attribute increasing inputs in value terms to the healthcare industry. Also, future improvements in the processing speed, memory and computational capabilities of information technology software and hardware are likely to be facilitated by nanotechnology e.g. quantum-switch-based computing (using quantum effects such as spin polarization of electrons to determine the state of switches) or molecular computing (using synthesized organic compounds as logic switches and carbon nano tubes as interconnections) displacing conventional digital computers.

This will increase the value of inputs from the computer services and office machines sector in the longer term. In summary, developments in the technologies that manipulate organisms, information and materials will affect the composition of the input structure into the healthcare industry. These changes are likely to be driven by developments in the manipulation of organisms and information in the short medium term and by nanotechnology in the longer term. As a result of these developments, output from the healthcare industry will increase significantly but this does not mean that growth in emissions per unit output will increase.

Give general impression of nanotechnology?

Technology surrounds us and touches every aspect of our lives. We can safely predict that technology, biotechnology, and nanotechnology will continue to drive an ever increasing rate of change in the new millennium. What Foods we eat, how we access information from all over the world instantaneously, how we communicate from any place at any time, what health care is available to us, how information about us is communicated to marketers, health care providers, the government, and others, and how we interface with our environment will continue to be changed by evolving technology. For the innovators among us, each change will be anticipated and eagerly incorporated into our lives. For the resisters among us, each change will be viewed with concern and a longing for the “good old days” when the telephone and television were new. For most of us, technological change will mean adaptation and thoughtful discussion on what quality of life we want.

Computer technology can free our imaginations through virtual realities. Animation software allows designers to “experience” their designs in cyberspace. Futurists predict that virtual reality will soon include even smells. Computer technology and conferencing also allow us to create national and international collaborations that bring the real world into our classrooms in environmental and apparel design. When our new addition to Martha Van Rensselaer Hall is completed, we will have even more sophisticated electronic classrooms to complement the computer assisted design labs, and we will be able to use computer technology to enhance the creativity of our educational programs. We can only anticipate that more innovative technologies await us. The science fiction of twenty years ago is becoming reality. How nanotechnology being created now will impact our lives ten years from now remains to be determined. The ethical and social questions posed by these current and future innovations need to be explored as we decide how we want technology to shape our future.

References

J.N. Hay, S.J. Shaw. A Review of Nanotechnology Composites. Disaster Preparedness an Emergency Association 2000; March 2003.

Institute of Nanotechnology. The International Technology Service Mission on Nanotechnology Facilities and Centers, South and West USA. The Institute of Nanotechnology, 2003.

I. Miles, D. Jarvis, Nanotechnology –A Scenario for Success in 2006, HMSO (National Physical Laboratory Report CBTLM 16), Middlesex, 2001.

Introduction

It has been forcefully argued that modernity’s project was most effectively achieved through the privileging of ‘sight’ and that modern culture has, in turn, elected the visual to the dual status of being both the primary medium for communication and also the sole ingress to our accumulated symbolic treasury (Jenks 5). The modern period is considered as a ‘seen’ phenomenon. Sociology however, itself in many senses the emergent discourse of modernity, has been rather neglectful of addressing cultural ocular conventions and has subsequently become somewhat inarticulate in relation to the visual dimension of social relations

Due to the previous of works of different individuals in the past, people in the modern world are being more knowledgeable and comprehensive in viewing different perspectives including the contemporary visual culture. One of the most recognized individual who had become famous because of his significant literary pieces is Walter Benjamin. In his classic literary piece, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”, 1936, which argued for the epochal significance of the mechanical means of modern visual reproduction (from lithography to film), Benjamin highlighted the material role of mass mediation as a modern invention and drew attention to the ideological performance of images in the politics of modern culture. Benjamin’s premise was that the development of the mechanical reproduction of images undermined the “aura” of the cult image, that is, its uniqueness and authenticity. Fascinated as a Marxist by the decay of proprietarily status that the democratizing power of mechanical reproduction entailed, Benjamin theorized that the uniqueness or essence of the original cult age was eliminated as the object was replicated and appropriated to contexts for which it was not originally intended. Deprived of its sensuous presence and its authorization in the religious rite, the authenticity of the work of art was compromised. Benjamin believed that mechanical reproduction would liquidate heroes; myths, gods, and cult figures, since reproducing them in film eliminated the “traditional value of the cultural heritage” by adapting the image of the original to the period and place of subsequent viewers.

Primarily the main goal of this paper is to assess the significance of the study made by Walter Benjamin regarding photographic image in the understanding of the contemporary visual culture. This paper will try to discuss the concept of contemporary visual culture and link this to the perspective of Walter Benjamin.

The Concept of Visual Culture

It is said that vision comes before texts. An individual, specifically, a child looks and recognizes before it can speak. However, there is also other sense in which seeing or perceiving comes before words. It is the kind of seeing which creates an individuals position in the surrounding world; it is explained that world within texts or words, but texts alone can never undo the fact that people are bounded by it. The link between what people see and what people know is never settled (Berger 7). Any effort to institute a social premise regarding visuality seems to be hindered by paradox. Within the Western society, it comes to regard sight as providing the immediate access to the external world. But beyond this, and perhaps because of this belief, visual ability has become conflated with cognition, and in a series of very complex ways. On the one hand, vision is lionized among the senses and treated as wholly autonomous, free and even pure. Yet on the other hand, visual symbols are experienced as mundane and necessarily embedded, and their interpretation is regarded as utterly contingent.

Conversely, vision is lionized among the senses and treated as wholly autonomous, free and even pure. Yet on the other hand, visual symbols are experienced as mundane and necessarily embedded, and their interpretation is regarded as utterly contingent. Looking, seeing and knowing have become perilously intertwined. Thus the manner in which different individual have come to understand the concept of an ‘idea’ is deeply bound up with the issues of ‘appearance’, of picture, and of image. The content and form of things is to be approached in terms of how they ‘look’. Modern power has the deft touch of a ‘look’ in interaction. It no longer requires the hard-edge and the explicit realization of the ancient regime, through a ‘look’ it can absorb all and do so without being noticed, or say all without ever revealing its true intentions. Modern power is pervasive, though not omnipotent, because it cautiously acts on and in relation to the sceptic regime; but it is not in its sway. The ‘gaze’ and the conscious manipulation of images are the dual instruments in the exercise and function of modern systems of power and social control (Barnard 116).

The term visual culture initially arose out of efforts to revive and update the scholarly discipline of art history in the 1970s. The art historian Svetlana Alpers is generally credited with coining and disseminating the term ‘visual culture’ to give a name to the context of ‘image-making devices’ and ‘visual skills’ of a particular culture as they impinged upon the making of art (Evans & Hall 212; Walker & Chaplin 65). Art historians recreated cultural contexts in order to illuminate what remained central to their quest: the works of art (Clark 105). Later writers of the 1980s and 1990s, by contrast, increasingly questioned the centrality of ‘Art’ and turned their attention to the context for its own sake.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, a growing number of books, journals, conferences and new academic departments have transformed visual culture from a context or subtext into the central field of inquiry, incorporating the term in their titles. These initiatives herald a new commitment to the category of visual culture. However, it is a category that is still in flux and has not yet (some may argue, fortunately not yet) resulted in any stable definitions or disciplinary demarcations. Writers on visual culture share an allegiance to the multidisciplinary and multi-medial character of the field; however, in other respects they can diverge widely.

Further, visual culture’ is a term used conventionally to signify painting, sculpture, design and architecture; it indicates a late-modern broadening of that previously contained within the definition of ‘fine art’. Broadening this designation further we might suggest that ‘visual culture’ could be taken to refer to all those items of culture whose visual manifestation and appearance is an important feature of their being or their purpose (Barnard 220).

Some writers apply the phrase ‘visual culture’ to all visual aspects of culture. They use it as an umbrella term to signal the broadening of the range of objects beyond the established categories of fine art and habitually produce lists of the various images and media that include film, television, video, advertising, photography, fine art, design, and digital imagery (Sturken & Cartwright 65; Carson & Pajaczkowska 119) Other scholars avoid the taxonomy of objects and argue that the new field of visual culture is less about artifacts than about the connections between and across various cultural practices of meaning making.

Walter Benjamin and the Visual Culture

“The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”, which is written by Walter Benjamin in 1936, is a seminal essay. It puts popular culture on the map by singling out what makes it structurally and socially distinct from other kinds of high art. By focusing on the technology’s transformation of the methods of production and reception of art, Benjamin creates a set of standards by which to judge popular culture on its own terms. Before it, writers on aesthetics considered mass culture a deficient version of classical art. After it, even those who disagreed with its proposals had to take popular culture seriously at least on the level of intellectual argument. In his essay, Benjamin brings to light many of popular culture’s implications for political life, implications that are more fully drawn out in the essay following. It was Benjamin thesis in “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” that just as the infrastructure of capitalist society is constantly transformed by technological development, so is the superstructure, the difference being that the pace of change is slower in the super- structure (Benjamin, 217).

The recent technology of mechanical reproduction has inaugurated a new epoch in sense perception analogous to that brought on by the printing press. Benjamin’s models were radio and newspaper, film and photography, because they were the most advanced instances of the trends he was describing. Since the processes he distinguishes, however, persist into the present, our examples will not be limited to what was available to Benjamin.

Benjamin’s brief survey of past techniques of mechanical reproduction (coinage, woodcutting, lithography) should not detain us as much as his central trope: the aura. The aura of a work of art is its presence in space and time, its distinctive existence at the place where it happens to be. Authenticity is one meaning of aura. Mechanical reproduction’s indiscriminate replication of the art object, its dispersion of it into “a plurality of copies,” dispensed with authenticity as a measure of value or even a meaningful concept in art. It did this by destroying the work’s temporal and spatial individuality, by causing it to lose its context and ‘place on line’ in the continuum of tradition (Ridless & Lang, 3). No longer moored to a specific physical location, the work of art could be activated through its image in places having nothing to do with its origins, usual environs or customary social uses and receptions.

The rise of mass culture thus coincided with the propagation of countless simulacra of precious works of art as well as their free-for-all dissemination to the public. Benjamin calls mechanical reproduction’s influence on classical culture “a far-reaching liquidation.” This liquidation or “catharsis” came about as a result of culture coming to be composed of free floating images that could be concatenated without regard for received meanings or past affinities. The technique of radical juxta-positioning, as practiced both by the early twentieth-century Surrealism and modern-day advertising, is ultimately the exploitation of a license inherent in culture’s material construction. To differentiate the new art from the irreplicable art of the Classical era, Benjamin invents the concept of the aura (Benjamin 218). Aura that mysterious sense of presence that an image often possesses when it is wrapped in the mantle of rite, reputation, or cultural prestige, vanished with the rise of mechanically reproduced images, according to Walter Benjamin (Morgan, 339). The cult status of Benjamin’s essay has only encouraged the ease with which his thesis has been accepted by people interested of art, film, and modern visual culture. The significant investigation of the past or history of photography has been regarded by literary scholars who discovered in Benjamin one of the useful connections between photography and text required to position their work within the rapidly expanding field of cultural studies. Walter Benjamin writes that the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction loses its aura of originality, of genius, through its sheer re- producibility (Benjamin, 220). But he finds that early photographs transferred “cult value” from works of art (which are only valuable as “originals”) to human faces: “The cult of commemoration of loved ones, absent or dead, offers a last refuge for the cult value of the picture” (226). It seems to me that he makes a mistake in limiting the cult value of portrait photographs to the early era of photography, for the idolatry of human images persists even now, both in the adoration of loved ones and in the worship of celebrities (Mitchell, 91). Benjamin apparently distinguishes between early portrait photographs of loved ones and “the cult of the movie star,” which does not “preserve” the unique aura of the person but the ’spell of the personality,’ the phony spell of a commodity” (231). In addition, Benjamin clams that our perception of the image depends on our associations with the subject pictured. Yet the fascinating aspect of photographic portraits lies in how sensations of “knowing” can be conjured for those we do not know, and the sense of longing can be aroused in us for those who are neither absent nor dead. The body’s image, in other words, projects both familiarity and distance, no matter who is pictured. When a human body is infinitely reproduced and disseminated in photographs, the body’s aura grows as more and more people see the photographic image. The body is the original, fully imbued with the power of authenticity through its existence as model for copies.

Since photography arrests the flow of life and creates memorials to moments, persons, and objects, the medium was from the first associated with death; early photographer Hippolyte Bayard enacted this when he took a photograph of himself as a drowned man, and consumers of photographs clearly understood it as well, as evidenced in a nineteenth-century enthusiasm for photographs of the dead. The posing of daguerreotypes during the early days of photography involved the use of a brace to force the subject into absolute stillness, and the combination of such devices with a stifling bourgeois decor, arranged and controlled by a Rasputin-like photographer, led Walter Benjamin to compare the studio to a torture chamber (Benjamin, 261).

Further, the use of photographs in the service of bureaucracy introduces the threat of surveillance. Walter Benjamin had lived under the eye of dictatorship, which employs photographs in the oppression of the individual: the identification papers, the passport and the records of the secret police. For this author, photographs of him would serve as incriminating evidence and not surprisingly, they exclude photographs from their autobiographies. Benjamin erases traces of his photographed physiognomy.

In dealing only with absent photographs, however (and this is important), Benjamin acknowledges the referential power of photograph. Walter Benjamin remove this photographed images from the public eye, but they retain references to photography and photography’s influence; Benjamin structures his autobiography in “images,” alluding to his theory that history is experience in photographic flashes of that conjoin and illuminate past and present experience (Rugg, 195). In addition, Walter Benjamin contemplates photography at a meta-level, not as photographs but as the idea of photographs. In his writing, the photographic idea becomes the determinant metaphor for aesthetics, politics, and history in the twentieth century. Where ancient people read stars, entrails, and runes, modern people read mechanically reproduced images.

The Contemporary Visual Culture

Modern artists are progressively generating works that imitate the fashion photography, which was derive from television, or otherwise striving to contend with the creation values of the contemporary visual culture. Herein, the academic and notional argument of the modern art as a cultural practice is still principally dependent on old-fashioned notion that the concept of “art” describes itself in crucial resistance with mass culture. The gap between the authenticity of the sensibility of the artist and the conjectural tools of most of the art criticism recommends that the comprehension of the link visual culture and the fine arts requires a main theoretical renovation to become more in maintaining with what’s actually happening. The revisiting aspects of the 20th century or contemporary art that gives a standard for modern movements, and that have been methodically excluded from the convention of what has come to be known as modern art history, is a useful place to begin (Anderson 21).

The historical and significant discussion of contemporary art that has been developed with modernism in concepts and the advanced ideology at its core does not have the ability to seek for a place in its premise for that visual creation that shapes the engagement with the contemporary life thru emblematic imagery or an animated dialogue with the mass media. However, such creation is indisputably new in its visual contexts and needs a conceptual discussion that involves the link between the visual culture and the fine arts in its popular, commercial and vernacular materialization. There has to be a means to consider seriously early 20th century visual contexts of reactions to contemporary life which were not solely involved with either exceeding it in favor of a general language of concept or notion or with radical political exclusion. When the plan of visual modernism is reconsidered with these works supporting the familiar coordinates of concepts and ideologies and the advanced notion, the landscape of the modern art will be fundamentally reconfigured to involve works whose visual types adheres to the 20th century modernism, but which draw on visual customs outside of the fine art (Mirzoeff 215).

The visual figures of the modern world, fine art and commercial alike, have been reconfigured by the historical viewpoint of photographic images and the study of Walter Benjamin. For Walter Benjamin, if the notion that the same people made important contributions to both commercial realms and the fine arts in the early 20th century looked like a radical concept, this is due to the premise that the act of connecting the visual culture to fine art was perceived as transgressive. The utilization of photographic imagery for commercial and visual purposes already had an established a good reputation, and the movement of images back and forth across the borders of fine and commercial art produced a pattern for a the same migration of forms of masterpiece’s composition, presentation, and communicative rhetoric (Sturken & Cartwright 215).

The misuse of photographic imagery and sketches that occupies the pop art and then postmodern works of art are just a part of an extensive history of such alternatives, each with its own historical charges and features. The major analysis of the assortment of substances in photographic images is that it kept so nearly to the history of advanced or modern art and graphics. With such an approach, there exists the risk of repeating the errors happened within modern art history and emphasizing the extremist forms, arithmetical tendencies, and photographic modernism that attributed an essential strain of design. But it allows aside the illustrational piece that characterized prominently in product and ad campaigns done in the modern of the period (Osborne, 3) In effect, the study of photography by Benjamin makes a bid for the art status of graphic design and, in so doing, truncates the field along lines quite similar to those established by canonical modernism. Since much of that work shows up in venues other than that of poster art, such as the papers of contemporary magazines, it would have required an unwieldy expansion of the exhibition to include them. But it would be regrettable if the heterogeneous spectrum of graphic design history were reduced to those strains that originate within the gene pool of high modernism just at the point when contemporary visual culture is being challenged to expand above those artificial limitations.

Nevertheless, the optimism of the curators seems a bit overstated: the incorporation of the history of graphic design into modern art history is still a highly elusive and controversial goal. It can be argued that the history of visual culture needs an artificial integration of the work in graphic design, imagery in advertising, editorial, and commercial contexts, into the history of fine art. The dialogue that artists themselves have with these varied histories and visual vocabularies could be better understood by enlarging the scope of modern art to include visual culture broadly defined (Osborne, 21).

All throughout the historic features of the modern visual culture, whether separated from the onset of different ideologies of romanticism, impressionism, or early 20th century activities, the identity of art practice has been intimately surrounded by mass culture. Keepers of the flame of critical modernism cast this relation as a type in which visual culture is the privileged term in any opposition like high or low, elite or popular, authorial or industrial, and they carefully guard the distinctions between them.

But the complex nature of the relation of fine art to mass-media imagery requires a more subtle characterization of the interlinked identity of the two domains. Modern visual culture and art has become intensively dependent on media culture, and on the appearance of visuality produced within mass media, for its vocabulary of images. The tail of flue art no longer wags the monster dog of commercial production, and thus it seems urgent to develop the historical comprehension of this relationship by looking more carefully at those materialization of contemporary visual culture that can help lay the critical groundwork for a nuanced discussion of this relationship in terms not circumscribed by a disdainful dismissal of the early twentieth-century dialogue of modern art and mass media (Barnard, 65).

In the willingness to perceive in the most precise and detailed way at the work of the contemporary, and at the masterpiece of graphic design, including other areas and aspects of modem visual culture, a primary understanding of these forces will begin to emerge. These are the forces that shape our current lives, and ignoring them in the designation of an elite critical stance of aesthetic negation and an embrace of the esoteric features of early modern art and the avant-garde is something we do only at our peril.

It has been noted that, different registers of the visual were engaged to target heterogeneous audiences: scenes of the mining settlements were circulated in print culture, but not in the elite forms of exhibited paintings. There were numerous exchanges between the visual domains of photography, tourist picture postcards, and paintings. Whereas art-historical accounts tend to foreground painting, assigning tourist materials to a discrete area called ‘context’, the emphasis here on the reciprocities between media and the historical specificity of pictorial visuality for artists and audiences assists an understanding of the continuum as well as the distinct registers of visual culture.

Conclusion

Analysis shows that through the study made by Benjamin, people have been able to understand that the concept of the contemporary visual culture depends on how an individual interpret the image. In addition, with the exceptional essay of Walter Benjamin entitled “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”, has been known to be a milestone in comprehending and understanding the effects of this technological transformation and changes of the importance of the image, now known not just a representation of the real but a producer of a new reality, a sur-reality, i.e. the image in its pure and simple form.

The visual image of today’s generation are perceived and recognized as having it own features, and status together with the materials presence. Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) produced some of the twentieth century’s most provocative and influential analyzes of photography as medium and metaphor. The importance of Benjamin’s writing on photography, particularly the literary piece, “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Mechanical Reproduction”, has been widely acknowledged in order for our modern world to fully understand the concept of contemporary visual culture. Benjamin left us a series of words “to learn to read”. Death, corpse, decay, ruin, history, mourning, memory, and photography: Words of Light puts each of these Benjaminian motifs through its paces to reveal not only its pervasiveness within Benjamin’s writings on history and photography, but also on literature, autobiography and material culture more generally. Fragmentary encryptions within Benjamin’s legendarily fragmented oeuvre, these words form the basis for a series of meditations that traverse the modern and the postmodern, the Marxist and the mystic, the apocalyptic, and perhaps even the redemptive. Thus it seems especially significant that Benjamin appears as a “sophisticated” theoretician of nineteenth-century visual culture.

Reference

Anderson, P. The Printed Image and the Transformation of Popular Culture 1790-186n. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.

Barnard, Malcolm. Approaches to Understanding Visual Culture. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.

Benjamin, W. “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.” in Walter Benjamin. Illuminations . Hannah Arendt, ed. Harry Zohn, trans. New York: Schocken Books, 1969.

Berger, J. Ways of Seeing. London: BBC, 1972.

Carson, F. & Pajaczkowska, C. Feminist Visual Culture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000.

Clark, T.J. The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers. London: Thames & Hudson, 1984.

Evans, J. & Hall, S. Visual Culture: The Reader. London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage, 1999.

Jenks, C. Visual Culture. New York: Routledge, 1995.

Mirzoeff, N. An Introduction to Visual Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 1999.

Mitchell, W.J.T. Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.

Osborne, P.D. Travelling Light: Photography, Travel and Visual Culture. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000.

Ridless, R. & Lang, P. Ideology and Art: Theories of Mass Culture from Walter Benjamin to Umberto Eco. New York, 1984.

Rugg, L.H. Picturing Ourselves: Photography and Autobiography. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997.

Sturken, M. & Cartwright, L. Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Walker, J.A. & Chaplin, S. Visual Culture: An Introduction. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1997.

Introduction

Early childhood establishments are relationship-founded organizations (Bertacchi, 1996). Their merchandise is service to families and children anchored in sympathetic relationships. Relationship-founded organizations are embodied by principles of reverence for the individual, understanding to context, dedication to developing growth and change, affinity of mutual objectives, open devotion to reflecting on vocation, and placing standards for the staff with reference to values and ethics. All of these principles can be cared for by creating an inclusionary vision recognized by all the stakeholders. It is an orientation which can be revisited recurrently, in particular at periods of transformation or pressure (Bertacchi, 1996).

This study intends to look into the development of the early childhood education in Britain along with the issues and challenges that it faced. Moreover, the paper also intends to present the courses of action conducted by the government in order to deal with the issues relating to early child education. The study will be using past and existing studies regarding early childhood education to discuss the development in the case of Britain.

Contemporary Early Childhood Education in Britain

Early childhood education for youngsters started to materialize in England in the late 18th century on a charitable and benevolent origin. In 1816, the initial nursery school in the United Kingdom was instituted at New Lanark in Scotland by Robert Owen (1771-1858) for the young offspring of the cotton mill workforce. Children ages 1 to 6 were looked after while their parents and elder brothers and sisters toiled in the cotton mills. Owen supported free and amorphous play in the learning of young individuals and did not push for formal education. He attempted to generate a prospective citizen in the course of the development of informal education and physical actions. Even though Owen’s philosophies were ahead of his time, his exemplar roused a noteworthy curiosity in early childhood education and the beginning of a significant number of infant schools in Britain.

Passage of the Education Act of 1870 was an imperative event for the reason that the action instituted necessary elementary schools for all broods from the age of 5. In the year 1880, elementary education turned out to be compulsory for all offspring between the ages of 5 and 13. In the non-existence of special establishments for younger children, elementary schools acknowledged children younger than 5 years old, to look after them from the unfortunate and damaging physical circumstances of slum residences and hazardous roads. In the year of 1905, five women inspectors from the Board of Education appraised the admittance of newborns to elementary schools as well as the set of courses employed to tutor them. These inspectors accounted the unsuitability of such stipulation for these young children and suggested that children under the age of 5 have detached amenities and a dissimilar teaching method from older children (Board of Education, 1905). The appraisers disapproved of the prominence on repetitive recurrence and rote memorization in the elementary school core curriculum. In consequence of this report, children under 5 were authoritatively left out from elementary schools.

In 1911, Margaret McMillan (1860-1931) and her sister Rachel instituted an outdoor nursery for impoverished kids in Deptford. McMillan’s educational paradigm was motivated by her socialist principles (Blackstone, 1971). She was worried for the physical condition and well-being of the children of blue-collar class, and she pressed the necessity for health care with appropriate sustenance, sanitation, exercise, and fresh air. Her nursery permitted free admission to play areas and grounds and was not based upon a permanent time schedule. McMillan’s techniques, with her highlighting on fresh air, work out, and sustenance, still have an effect on some features of contemporary English nursery practice (Curtis, 1998).

By the 1960s, the diminishing in family size and the shutting down of day nurseries subsequent to the Second World War had decreased the protects for children to play with other children. Simultaneously, responsiveness of the educational importance of play may have developed into a more extensive case. It was impracticable for Local Education Authorities (LEAs) to augment the quantity of nurseries, for the reason that the Ministry of Education Circular 8/60 affirmed that there may possibly be no extension of nursery school provision (Cleave & Jowett, 1982). For the duration of this phase, the deficiency of LEA provision of nursery consignments and increasing parental attention in young children’s wellbeing and schooling generated a new-fangled category of preschool provision: playgroups. The foundation of the playgroup movement is associated to Belle Tutaev, a London mother, who in 1961 prepared a nursery assemblage for her small offspring in a church foyer, dividing the responsibilities of child care with a neighbor. The educational establishments received the playgroup movement as an economical alternative for nursery schools.

In the year of 1972, Margaret Thatcher, as Secretary of State for Education, tendered a White Paper on education entitled “Education: A Framework for Expansion” (Department of Education and Science, 1972). The White Paper recommended that nursery education be supplied for all who sought after it, stating that by 1980 there would be nursery school consignments for 50% of 3-year-olds and 90% of 4-year-olds. Nevertheless, this pledged nursery development was not imminent for the reason of the economic depression. All the way through the 1970s and 1980s, non-statutory preschool stipulation was deserted and undeveloped.

The Rumbold Report (DES, 1990) and the Royal Society of Arts Report (Ball, 1994) similarly pressed the significance of excellence in early years education. The Rumbold report suggested a curriculum anchored on eight main parts of learning, following in the route of a recent HMI (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate) journal The Curriculum from 5 to 16 (DES, 1985). These important parts are categorized by the report as the artistic and creative; human and social; speech and literacy; mathematics; physical; science; spiritual and moral; and technology (DES, 1990). On the other hand, the Royal Society of Arts Report (Ball, 1994) suggested that first-class provision be made accessible to all 3- and 4-year-olds, reconsidering indications that first-class early education brings about long-lasting cognitive and social advantages in children. Ball set off the several major fundamentals for first-class provision. These includes a suitable early learning set of courses; the assortment, tuition, and stability of staff; strong staff to children ratios; establishments and equipment premeditated for early learning; and a cooperative function for parents.

In 1996, the Conservative administration pioneered the first phase of a Nursery Voucher system connected to a set of guiding principles for pre-statutory situations this is labeled as the Desirable Outcomes for Children’s Learning on Entering Compulsory Education (SCAA, 1996). From the time when the opening of the Voucher system and Desirable Outcomes, early childhood education has developed into a concern on the national policy list of items, and there have been noteworthy developments in the implementations and policies of early childhood education. The Voucher system permitted parents to employ vouchers valued up to £1,100 per individual child for up to three periods of part-time education for their 4-year-old offspring, in any structure of preschool stipulation. With the purpose of register for the reception of vouchers, preschool conditions had to demonstrate that they were conveying the children in the direction of the Desirable Outcomes as stated by the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA, 1996). The Desirable Outcomes are education objectives that children have to realize prior to their entrance compulsory schooling. They give emphasis to early literacy, numeracy, and the improvement of personal and social proficiency, and they subscribe to children’s awareness, appreciation, and skills in other fields.

Nevertheless, in 1997, the incoming Labor Government put an end to the voucher system and prepared its own arrangements for the improvement of early year services. The new administration attempted to elevate criterions and considerably augmented public financial support of early years education. The administration tendered direct financial support to preschool organizations for part-time consignments for 4-year-old youngsters and an escalating amount of part-time places for 3-year-old kids. On the other hand, the reception of this financial support for 3- and 4-year-old youngsters is reliant on each preschool provision satisfying government prerequisites for the customary inspection of preschool situations, in congruence to the structure of Desirable Outcomes, now revised as Early Learning Goals (QCA, 2000).

The Current Curriculum

The Education Reform Act for the initial time set off a National Curriculum for England and Wales in the year of 1988. It offered an extensive reformation of the educational structure in England. The most significant rationalizations for the National Curriculum are improving the criterion in schools and tendering a comprehensive and even-handed curriculum (Moon, 1994). Before the 1988 Education Reform Act, the education arrangement was decentralized, with modest government involvement in curriculum preparation and execution. On the other hand, since the introduction of the National Curriculum, government involvement has augmented and teachers’ self-sufficiency has subsequently diminished (Cox, 1996). From its launch, the subject-founded method of the National Curriculum has been perceived as an assault on conventional child-concentrated preschool education. Even though the National Curriculum is only applicable solely to students of compulsory school age, its institution has unavoidably had an impact upon agenda for children under statutory school age (Blenkin & Kelly, 1994; Moss & Penn, 1996).

An additional noteworthy reform in English early childhood education was the institution of the structure for early years education characterized by the Desirable Outcomes for Children’s Learning (SCAA, 1996). At that occasion, augmenting the benchmarks and developing quality in early childhood organizations were public priorities in policy making. The unambiguous prospect of this SCAA publication was that preschool schooling programs would facilitate children to arrive at the desirable results by compulsory school age.

The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, 1999) substituted the Desirable Outcomes with Early Learning Goals by the year of 1999. Nevertheless, the Early Learning Goals (QCA, 1999) do not hold opposing views on a significant level from the Desirable Learning Outcomes and hold on to the similar six areas of learning. The noteworthy development, in the context of the set of courses, is that the Early Learning Goals correspond to what most children are anticipated to accomplish by the conclusion of the foundation stage, which is defined as the age of 3 to the ending of the reception year, as opposed to on arriving at compulsory school age. The government set up a Foundation Stage of early learning, which is a contemporary stage of schooling for children age 3 to the conclusion of their reception year when they will be 5, going up to 6. The end result is that the preceding national curriculum projected for 3- and 4-year-olds broadens to take in 5-year-olds.

By the advent of the new millennium, Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage was printed and released by the Department for Education and Employment and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA, 2000). The curriculum guidance is projected to assist specialists plan to satisfy the assorted requirements of all children so that the majority will achieve and some, where suitable, will go further than the early learning objectives by the conclusion of the foundation stage (p. 5). It is noteworthy that even though the curriculum guidance maintains to explain integrated learning, it similarly gives emphasis to literacy and numeracy as distinctive curriculum fields. The curriculum guidance sets off the substance of each field in three parts. These parts include the “Stepping Stones;” the second is the “Examples of What Children Do;” and the third is termed as “What Does the Practitioner Need to Do?” The manuscript of the “Stepping Stones” starts out the early learning objectives for each field of learning. The instances of “What Children Do” demonstrate the manner in which children of dissimilar ages are improving. The sector “What Does the Practitioner Need to do?” presents the manner in which the specialist can configure and supply suitable activities.

As a component of the latest improvements in early childhood education, the government initiated inspection of preschool situations by the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). OFSTED is a non-ministerial governmental division, self-regulating part of the Department of Education and Skills, accountable for examining all schools and early years provision acquiring the government’s financial support in England. The objective of the OFSTED’s inspection procedure is to guarantee government, parents, and the public that government funded nursery schooling is of acceptable excellence (OFSTED, 2001). Every category of preschool condition that desires to agree to government’s financial support is obliged to undertake an inspection by OFSTED. This examination appraises the degree to which the preschool settings are working in the direction of the Early Learning Goals.

The inspectors employs an assortment of methods to come to their conclusions, as well as inspection of activities, assessment of resources, evaluation of documentary confirmation, and dialogue with the staff and children. At the conclusion of the inspection episode, the lead inspector provides an oral response on the examination, and within weeks, the preschool acquires the inspection account. It is important that the inspection account is a public document and accessible on the Internet. If the preschool location does not satisfy the inspection prerequisites, financial support may be inhibited. Therefore, early years teachers encounter great pressure to encourage specific and prespecified learning results, many of which concentrate on literacy and numeracy.

With the English government calls for elevating standards, preschool teachers are obliged to abide by OFSTED inspection standards. Smidt (2002) similarly contended that by reason of the government course of action to elevate excellence and standards, children are required to gain knowledge of things by rote, color in spreadsheets, and normally be submissive in numerous learning conditions. The institution of curriculum guidance for the foundation period, in conjunction with the statutory inspection procedure, seems to have had a strong pressure on preschool education in England. Even though there is an ongoing contention on the subject of their suitability, the Early Learning Goals have been extensively recognized as the foundation for activity in preschool settings.

Conclusion

This paper has looked at the varying curriculum for early childhood education in Britain. The study has presented that conventional early childhood schooling in England has been child concentrated contrary to models that are subject concentrated and instructor absorbed. Conventional early childhood education has given emphasis on individual children’s welfare, free play, direct knowledge, and integrated education. Nonetheless, in 1996, the government brought in a framework for an early years curriculum, reclassified the child-concentrated educational paradigm, and instigated improvements for raising standards. The national preschool curriculum structure (Early Learning Goals) highlights not only integrated scholarship but also literacy and numeracy. The structure similarly identifies specific accomplishments to be anticipated of 4- and 5-year-olds. Regardless of the advantages and pitfalls of the correctness of the structure, more formal tuition in literacy and numeracy instruction is being unswervingly and circuitously enforced upon young children. Government schemes and assessment have commenced to modify the conventional character of English preschool situation.

References

Ball, Christopher. (1994). Start right: The importance of early learning. London: Royal Society of Arts.

Bertacchi, J. (1996) Relationship-based organizations. Zero-To-Three, 17 (2), 2-7.

Blackstone, Tessa. (1971). A fair start: The provision of pre-school education. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Press.

Blenkin, Geva M., & Kelly, A. V. (1994). Early childhood education: A developmental curriculum. London: Paul Chapman.

Board of Education. (1905). Report on children under five years of age in public elementary schools. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (HMSO).

Cleave, Shirley, & Jowett, Sandra. (1982). And so to school: A study of continuity from pre-school to infant school. Windsor, England: NFER-Nelson.

Cox, Theo. (1996). The national curriculum in the early years: Challenges and opportunities. London: Falmer Press.

Curtis, Audrey. (1998). A curriculum for the pre-school child. London: Routledge.

Department of Education and Science (DES). (1972). Education: A framework for expansion. London: HMSO.

Department of Education and Science (DES). (1985). The curriculum from 5 to 16. London: HMSO.

Department of Education and Science (DES). (1990). Starting with quality. London: Author.

Moon, Bob. (1994). A guide to the national curriculum. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Moss, Peter, & Penn, Helen. (1996). Transforming nursery education. London: Paul Chapman.

Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). (2001). OFSTED’s nursery education [Online]. London: Author. Available: http://www.ofsted.gov.uk

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). (1999). Early learning goals. London: Author.

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). (2000). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage. London: Author.

School Curriculum Assessment Authority (SCAA). (1996). Nursery education: Desirable outcomes for children’s learning on entering compulsory education. London: SCAA and Department for Education and Employment.

Introduction

This research paper shall discuss the factors that are to be considered if a breeder wants to breed a mare in foal heat. As a backgrounder, the paper shall present the physical nature of horse, the mare’s reproductive system and / or cycle. A brief discussion on the endocrine and gynecological status of mares during the foal heat is also presented. The advantages and disadvantages of breeding in foal heat is also cited as well as the of course the factors that should be considered by breeders and things that they can do if they want to breed a mare during foal heat.

The physical nature of horses

Horses are land mammals that are known for their speed, strength, and endurance. In fact, they are often used not only as a beast of burden or for transportation but as well as in races. Mature female horses are called mares while on the other hand, mature male horses are called stallions. “Horses are members of the Equidae family, which also includes zebras and asses” (Horse, 2005). Like all the other members of the Equidae family, horses can adapt very well. In fact horses can carry on traveling in long distances with great efficiency and can survive well even on a diet that is nutrient-poor and / or high-fiber grasses. The horses are found to have a very social nature; in fact they form strong associations with members of their herd. Furthermore, they are found to have a keen ability to recognize subtle social cues (Horse, 2005). “These instinctive behaviors form the basis of the horse’s ability to bond with and obey a human trainer” (Horse, 2005).

Since the horses are known for their speed, strength and endurance, they are considered as one of the most important domestic animals in human civilization. Throughout the history of human civilization, they have provided transportation to humans and at the same time, they have provided service in the field of agriculture, warfare, and sport. Their importance to humans is evident until today; in fact, there is an estimated 60 million domestic horses that are used in the world today. On the other hand, the wild horses that exist today, such as those that are found in the American West, are actually” feral animals, free-living descendants of domestic horses that escaped or were turned loose”(Horse,2005).

However, due to the deliberate breeding by humans, the horses of today remarkably vary in size, body shape, and coat color. A horse’s size can be measured at the withers, which are “the elevated part of the spine between the neck and the back” (Horse, 2005). This is then measured through the hands. A hand is approximately ten centimeters or four inches. “Typical riding horses stand 14 to 16 hands high and weigh 400 to 500 kg (900 to 1,100 lb)” (Horse, 2005).

Horses’ Reproduction

Since mares are mammals, they share the same organic make up as other mammals. The mare’s reproductive organs are located internally, which is inside the pelvic and abdominal regions.

Horses become sexually mature when they reach about one and a half years. However, the horse’s sexual maturity can be as early as ten months or as late as ten months. The estrous cycle of a mature female horse or a mare is typically 21 days. It is in the first five days of the mare’s estrous cycle that the mare is usually receptive to mating. The mare’s estrous cycle stops during the winter season and resumes during the spring season, which is in fact, the start of the breeding season. Thus, mares are classified as seasonally polyestrus. Polyestrus means that their reproductive tract is only active during certain seasons of the year. Estrus is the period when mares are in heat, while diestrus when they are not. The mares’ reproductive rest period is called anestrus.

There are various courtship rituals involved when a stallion or a mature male approaches a mare during the mare’s first five days of estrous cycle. Some of the various courtship rituals include the uttering of nickering sounds and the sniffing and licking of the mare’s genital area.

The gestational period of the female horse averages 11 months. It is only during rare occasions that a mare gives birth to twins; it is most common that a mare gives birth to a single offspring. Foals are the young horses that are not yet weaned. The female young horses are called fillies while the young male horses are called colts.

Normal Physiology and Behavior of a mare

Typically, a mare might or might not display the events of her estrous cycle. However, a mare usually demonstrates that she’s in heat by showing interest in the stallion, or even to geldings or other mares. A mare’s sexual interest can be use as an indication that the mare’s reproductive system is functioning normally, proving the well being of her ovaries.

It is important that a breeder observes the mare’s estrous cycle and records the data. This should include when the mare starts cycling each year, and the length of her cycles. This is because some mares undergo a silent heat, where they won’t display any signs of estrus. Ways to determine if a mare is in heat is by scratching her a little under the tail, and looking for signs of vaginal milk around the lips of the vulva.

On the other hand, there are mares that appear to be in constant heat. This type might actually follow a usual 21-day cycle, although her behavior doesn’t change. This is when the veterinarian has to check the mare through palpation to determine when she is actually ready to ovulate.

Hormones Affecting Reproduction

The functions of the gonads are controlled and regulated by pituitary gland and a part of the brain, which is the hypothalamus. The pituitary glands release gonadotropins with the influence of the hypothalamus. Gonadotropins include hormones such as the: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

At the beginning of ovulation, there is a development of the ovary’s corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces progesterone and appears on the ovary during ovulation. Progesterone is the hormone that maintains mare’s pregnancy and keeps the mare out of heat. The progesterone is synthesized by the corpus luteum up to the 14th day after ovulation.

Aside from that, the mare’s uterus secretes another hormone, prostaglandin F2 alpha, during the fourteenth or fifteenth after ovulation. The prostaglandin F2 alpha is the hormone that terminates the life of the luteum and at the same time the rate of the mare’s progesterone falls. Furthermore, the mare comes into heat to signal the beginning of her next estrous cycle and prompts the development of a new follicle.

The follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary as well as the synthesis of estrogen. Hundreds of follicles can develop into ova during the lifetime of a mare’s estrous cycle. “Certain follicles grow in each breeding season, and in each estrous cycle, one will mature into an ovum at the point of ovulation” (Strickland, 1996).

The luteinizing hormone on the other hand is released from the pituitary gland. The luteinizing hormone is the hormone that will stimulate ovulation. At the same time, the luteinizing hormone also triggers the rupture of a mature follicle. In turn, the follicle releases an ovum. The ovum (or ova) is also called an oocyte;it is the ovum that moves through a mare’s oviduct (or fallopian tubes).

Mare pregnancy

Like other mammals, when an ovum becomes fertilized is the time that a mare becomes pregnant. When both ovum and sperm meet at the same time in one of the mare’s oviducts (or fallopian tubes), a fertilized egg or zygote is produced. The fertilized turns into an embryo which will eventually become a foal ready for birth.

It is during the twenty-four to forty-eight hours prior to the rupture of a follicle that most horse breeders breed their mare. It is only four hours after breeding that the stallion’s sperm arrive in the oviducts. It is in the oviduct’s surface that that stallion’s sperms are attached while it waits for an ova. It is approximately forty-eight hours that a sperm can stay and / or survive in the mare’s oviducts.

It is in the sixth day after fertilization that the zygote moves into the uterus. Between the sixth and fifteenth day that the embryo moves back and forth to let the uterus know that there is an embryo there.

In response to the embryo’s free-floating movements, the uterus changes the function of the estrous cycle. Dirk Vanderwall, DVM, PhD, of Colorado State University, noted, “The embryo is responsible for blocking uterine secretion of the hormone prostaglandin F2 alpha. This will occur up to seven days after ovulation.”

On the other hand, if the uterus fails to recognize the embryo’s existence, prostaglandin is released which in turn blocks the ovary’s production of progesterone. Since it is the progesterone that maintains the pregnancy, the embryo dies.

The efficiency of the mare’s reproductive system changes due to the effect of the mare’s age. Citing recent statistics, Terry Blanchard, DVM, of Texas A&M University, reported, “The fertility of mares stays pretty flat till about 10 or 12 years of age. After she starts to get into her teens, there’s a decline in her fertility. Those mares that produce desirable offspring will remain in the breeding herd.”

Although a filly or a young female horse can conceive at an early age, it is most likely still immature to deal with the pressures of motherhood. On the other hand, the older mares, which has experienced many pregnancies, shows loss of uterine firmness. Vanderwall said, “In the last 10 years, we have begun to understand why fertility starts declining in older broodmares. There’s a dramatic loss after 15 to 18 years of age. It’s more severe in the mare 18 to 21. Embryo transfer research indicates that the eggs produced by older broodmares may be less viable than the eggs produced by younger mares.”

Riegger noted that the mare’s condition also improves or inhibits the chances of pregnancy. “A mare who’s lean, in good condition and good health, is obviously going to have a higher conception rate,” said Riegger. “You presume a fat, old, out-of-shape horse will probably have a lower fertility rate. But as soon as you say a fat old mare can’t get pregnant, then she will.”

Breeders to improve a mare’s likelihood of conception use the technique of flushing. In flushing technique, the horse owner and / or breeder keeps a mare in a lean condition through the winter, and afterwards accelerates her feed ration in the spring. In effect, as the mare resumes her estrous cycle (which is in fact, in spring), she’s more likely to conceive.

The climate and seasons also has an effect on the mare’s estrous cycle. This is something to consider for the breeder who wants a foal every year from a valuable broodmare. Because of the mare’s 11-month gestation period, you expect the mare to conceive according to the breeding season, not her natural season. Aside from that, the length of daylight hours also affects the pituitary gland. Vanderwall explained, “We use lights to start the season as early as Feb. 15. Because of that, in order for her to foal each year within that defined breeding season, we only have about 30 days in the post-foaling period to get that mare pregnant so she’ll foal approximately the same time next year. That doesn’t always occur, and we find that typically the mare may start having her foals later in the year in successive breeding seasons.”

The combined effect of all these factors can result in the breeder to have no foal within one breeding season. The mare sits out one year as barren so that the breeder can start breeding her again earlier the following year.

Foal Heat

“Among domestic species, the mare is unusual in that there is a return to a fertile estrus within two weeks of birth, and a new pregnancy can be established very early in the post-partum period” (Pycock, 1997).

A mare’s foal heat is the period of her first estrus. The foal heat is characterized by “normal follicular development and ovulation by day 20 post-partum in almost 100 % mares” (Pycock, 1997). Most mares become in heat (estrus) approximately five to eight days after preturition with an average of ten days from birth to post-partum.

However, there are times that a mare does not show that they are in foal heat. That is, the mare does not show physical signs that they are in heat. This happens when the mare has given birth early in the year and is expecting her seasonal anestrus (or rest period). Furthermore, mares do not show signs that they are in estrus because of their maternal instinct to take care of her foal.

After foaling, there is a reduction in the diameter (which eventually leads to a reduction in size) in the mare’s uterus; this is called the uterine involution. As the uterus decreases in size, a discharge from the uterine lumen, which is called the post-partum luminal fluid or the lochia. This is normal and is noticed as vaginal exudates around the third and fourth day after parturition. However, on the fifth day, the color of the discharge becomes paler. This fluid is discharged through the cervix, which only closes after the foal heat and when progesterone production from the corpus luteum begins,

Advantages of breeding during foal heat

“Advocates for mating on foal heat cite the following advantages:

(1) it lowers the odds that mares foaling early in the year will re-enter anestrus after the foal-heat ovulation, yet remain unbred, which would increase the parturition-to-conception interval;

(2) it avoids a delay (=3 wk) in the foaling date the next year if mares are first mated on the second postpartum estrus; and

(3) cummulative season pregnancy rates are often just as good for mares first mated on foal heat as mares first mated on later postpartum estrous periods “( Blanchard et al, 2004).

Disadvantages of breeding during foal heat

Lower pregnancy rates

Potential for greater pregnancy losses

Factors to consider when breeding during the mare’s foal heat

Studies show that only 10 % of the horses are bred during the foal heat. Thus, needless to say, there is a very low pregnancy rate during a mare’s foal heat.

One key issue that a breeder must consider if he wants to breed his mare during foal heat is the recognition of the delayed uterine involution of the mare. A delayed uterine involution of the mare results to dystocia, abortion, placentitis or the retention of the placenta; all of which causes complications during pregnancy.

Another factor to consider is the large numbers of inflammatory cells or neutrophils also affects the mare’s pregnancy. A large number of inflammatory cells indicate a serious inflammation. Uterus inflammation or “Metritis can be acute (a rapid onset followed by a short, severe course), subacute, or chronic (long-lasting). Some mares have contracted a metritis known as Contagious Equine Metritis (CEM), which is a highly contagious venereal disease” (Strickland, 1996).

Furthermore, bacteria enter the mare’s uterus after foaling. Bacteria of course can cause infections during pregnancy.The fluid inside the uterine lumen is also a factor in the mare’s pregnancy as well as an early embryonic mortality. Severe trauma in the birth canal and tears should also be considered if a breeder wants to breed a mare during foal heat.

What to do if a breeder wants to breed during a mare’s foal heat?

A breeder must first and foremost, check the mare’s physical condition if the mare is not suffering from any form of disease that could affect the mare’s conception.

A breeder must be able to assess if there is delayed uterine involution on the mare in order to avoid any complications during pregnancy. There are two steps to assess if there is delayed uterine involution; the manual palpitation and through ultrasound. During the manual palpitation there is an observation on the physical characteristics of the uterus while on the other hand, through the use of the ultrasound there is an accurate examination of the uterine dimension and accumulation of fluid in the uterus.

In order for the breeder to avoid or prevent a large number of bacteria in the mare’s uterus, the breeder must pay close attention to hygiene and ensure that it is attended as soon after foaling.

If the breeder has taken the necessary precautions, it is also advisable that the mare is taken to a veterinarian to undergo exams, in order to determine if it is really fit to reproduce or not.

The breeder must submit the mare to an ultrasound, in order to determine whether the mare’s ovaries are normal in size and shape.

A vaginal exam is also needed in order to feel for cervix adhesions or lacerations or for places where the foal may have torn the mare at birth causing weakness in the walls of the uterus or birth canal.

A biopsy on the mare should also be done. In the biopsy a small sample of cells from the uterus is taken in order to determine if the mare has any problems such as infection.

References

Blanchard, T. L et al (2004). Mating Mares in Foal Heat : A Five Year Retrospective Study .Ithaca, NY: International Veterinary Information Science.

Burnett, K.(2001).Managing Heat Cycles in Breeding & Performance Mares.Retrieved April 18, 2005, from Horse Previews Magazine

Hillenbrand,L.(2005).Modern Breeding Statistics:How Fertile are Horses?

Horse.(2005).Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2005 Website:http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562654_3/Horse.html#endads

McKinnon, A.(1993).Can We Improve Fertility of Horses. usy.edu Website:http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/rirdc/articles/breeding/fertilit.htm

Mottershead, J. (1998). Why Delay Foal Heat?. from equine-reproduction. Website:http://www.equine-reproduction.com/articles/foalheat.htm.

Pycock, J.(1997).Breeding on Foal Heat.from GWRanch. Website:http://gwranch.users.ixpres.com/breeding_on_foal_heat.htm

Strickland, C.(1996).Anatomy and Physiology of a Mare’s Reproductive System. from equine - reproduction. Website:http://gwranch.users.ixpres.com/reproductive_system.htm

It is said that, the basic principle of such tradition is that humans communicate through symbols, which are a common currency through which a sense of self is created through interaction with others. Mead’s theory neatly avoids the trap of positing a sense of self that is constructed entirely through symbols and society by making a distinction between two different selves: “I” which is the unsocialized self; the font of individual desires and needs, and “me,” the socialized self, the self within society. (p. 184) Elliot rightly identifies the flaws of symbolic interactionism: namely, the obsession with rationalism and the wholesale disavowal of the emotional aspects of the self. The American sociologist Irving Goffman would seem to articulate a rather more fluid version of selfhood. Irving’s self is constantly engaged in per formative space, routinely playing specific roles within particular scenes of social interaction. (2001) This conceptualization of self too is not without its flaws, for although Irving maintains that there is a self behind the masks, it is not this self but rather its per formative role-playing that appears to be analyzed in Irving’s theory.

Abortion

The mind is the ultimate resource and the only thing that is truly scarce in absolute terms. Abortion thus adversely affects society by both reducing the quantity of minds available and by exacerbating negative externalities. Thus, abortion is not in the public interest on account of both of these reasons and, therefore, it cannot be a just or genuinely beneficial public policy. (Germain, p. 275)

Theologians will argue that killing innocent human beings is moral turpitude since an irreplaceable soul is lost. However, abortion is also a huge social loss in an economic sense. Society loses minds and the ideas they would have, as well as the resources that are siphoned off in order to kill and process them. But the murdered lose the opportunity to live and enjoy life, and all that living entails. Also, many have to bear the pain of being burned to death by saline solution or chopped up into pieces by sharp instruments, and would hardly be consoled by the fact that their remains will go to benefit medical science or rent seekers. The key element is that an innocent life has been taken that might have developed into the next Einstein, Edison, Salk, Jefferson, or Beethoven. (1970)

Some believe that even though there may be life, or potential life, or however one wants to refer to the fetus, that by denying a woman the right to an abortion is denying her control of her body. Being a woman myself, I am obviously against people trying to control women or their bodies. But the fetus is a completely separate life from the woman. It has a completely different blood type and genetic code; it is not just part of the mother’s body. It is temporarily residing there, and birth is just the change of residence from an already living, active person. Just because the unborn is dependent on the mother for nine months, does that give anyone the right to choose to end its life?

Being dependent on others should not deprive a helpless human being the fundamental right to live, as we do not base humanness on whether another person is around to take care of that life. Trying to justify abortion by arguing that the unborn does not have this right is a form of discrimination based on age and the fact that they cannot speak for themselves. There is also an issue about child abuse, that unwanted children will be unloved and abused.

Most people would agree that unjustified and unexcused homicide is morally wrong, but many disagree about whether abortion is homicide. If abortion were homicide, then one would be bound in conscience to seek a justification, or at least an excuse, for homicide in every act of abortion. By contrast, if abortion were not homicide, but only the medical termination of a pregnancy, then an act of abortion would not have a fundamental moral significance; the practice would then be justifiable by less fundamental reasons.

It follows that particular arguments for or against the morality of abortion are secondary to the question of whether abortion is homicide. Therefore a prior question to the issue of the morality of abortion is whether embryos and fetuses are possible victims of a homicide, or moral persons. Grisez’s argument buttressed ontologically by Aristotle convincingly shows that to kill the fetus is to kill the baby, to kill the child, to kill the young adult, to kill the adult, and thus to kill the older person. For the full value of the person is in every stage of development. Or as Aristotle could say, “killing the potentiality certainly kills the actuality.”

Surrogacy

Since motherhood is so personal, and each woman experiences pregnancy differently, is it appropriate to objectify a woman’s rights by theorizing her body and her decision to act as a surrogate? Shanley claims, “Contract pregnancy raises issues that are important not only for the children, mothers, and fathers who are directly touched by them, but also for those concerned with the meaning of new reproductive practices for the common life we shape together through public discourse and law” (p. 88).

The problem with Shanley’s use of this argument to present the two sides is that it presumes that the title used to describe someone matters, and it makes it seem that all people use one term to refer to a mother; anyone called a mother is exactly the same as all of the other mothers. Mom, mother, mama: these are all words used to describe the same sort of person in the English language. Many adopted children think of themselves as having two mothers, a custodial mother and a biological mother. While a title can offer power and privilege, a title is not always necessary to perform the same actions. Such opinion presented by Shanley is caught up in an argument that will not change the situation and would never be made about a male’s role in raising a child if such situation is allowable to happen.

Such argument is not that some titles do not offer more power or privilege, but that in the case of surrogacy, two individual women may have the same title (surrogate mother or whatever you want to call it) but have different feelings about the role. One woman may feel very detached from the baby and consider her a baby holding area for some people she barley knows, while another woman may feel much attached to the baby and the biological parents because she is a relative or family friend. Each woman will feel differently about each surrogacy situation because the social context is so important.

A contentious division that Shanley finds interesting to describe in the surrogacy controversy is whether or not contracts between the surrogate mother and the biological parents, for the right to possess a baby, should be binding. As Shanley presents it, there are two sides to this question as well. Shanley describes the pro-contract-enforcement side as regarding “a woman as having a right to enter a contractual arrangement to bear a child and receive money for her service, and the prohibition or nonenforcement of pregnancy contracts as illegitimate infringements on a woman’s autonomy and self-determination” (p. 87). The con-contract enforcement side Shanley describes as seeing “contract pregnancy as inherently oppressive to the child-bearing woman, particularly if she is forced to fulfill the contract against her will” (p. 87).

For some parents employing a surrogate, a legally prepared document explaining that if a surrogate decides to keep the baby she must repay all monies given to her and used for medical expenses, including a common going price for sperm, would be an appropriate pre-conception measure. Regardless of contract, however, women who think that they want to be surrogates should be required to seek psychological counseling, as a way of helping them make an informed decision during and after the pregnancy, and as a way of handling the emotions involved.

The easy decision is not always the best decision. Granted, the legality of surrogacy would be easier if either side presented by Shanley won and either every surrogacy would require a binding contract, or contracts would not be allowed. However, an extreme view is going to be impractical to enforce because of the sheer variance among individual surrogacy conditions.

Each baby is a unique individual who results from a unique pregnancy. The surrogate mother must put herself and her health first; as is common practice for pregnant mother, but the biological parents have their unborn baby as a first priority. Thus, the unknowns of pregnancy can create consequences for two parties of people who have different primary concerns. Theorizing about surrogacy and a woman’s body will not help “the child-bearing woman” (p. 88) whom Shanley claims to have at the center of her analysis. Shanley’s critique of two sides of a surrogacy debate simply encourages the theoretical debate to continue without providing any help for the parties involved.

Womanhood has been degraded so often with gender discrimination, wife battery, sexual harassment, rape, pornography, prostitution, contraceptives with their callous side effects, genital mutilation, etc. Surrogacy is another attempt in this direction. The womb of a woman, as asserted Morenike Taire, is not like a cupboard or a refrigerator where you keep something and come back to find it as you left it. The unusually high rate of infertility among women nowadays is an outcome of the rigorous sex they have been exposed to from their teenage years, contraceptive consumption with its unsung fallouts, and multiple abortions allowed to foreclose other options open to combat infertility that would not subject the human origin to subject of vulgar determinism. Human life is still sacred. The basis of IVF, surrogate motherhood and sundry practices is allergic to morality. Further developments would only inspire other immoralities. We have to make them a tough procedure to follow. We need to construct an order before crises impose one as a necessity. By then many waters of life may have passed irrevocably under the bridge.

References

Elliot, Anthony. ‘Concepts of the Self’, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Polity Press, 2001. pp. 184

Germain Grisez, Abortion: the Myths, the Realities, and the Arguments, New York: World Publishing Company, 1970; Corpus Books, 1972, p. 275

Shanley, Mary Lyndon. “Surrogate mothers” and women’s freedom: A critique of contracts of human reproduction. In Bodies Perfect, Bodies Everlasting, Bodies Bought and Sold, pp.87-106

Damola, Awoyokun (Monday, September 29, 2003) Perils of IVF and surrogate motherhood